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In the EU, unilateral or ‘dominant’ firm conduct is governed by Article 102 TFEU. In particular, Article 102 TFEU prohibits undertakings that (individually or collectively) hold a dominant position within the internal market, or a substantial part of it, from abusing their dominance (without objective justification) insofar as it may affect trade between Member States. This provision is mirrored in the national competition laws of EU Member States.

Article 102 TFEU places a ‘special responsibility’ on dominant undertakings—aiming to ensure that powerful firms do not distort markets, act unfairly towards customers, or reduce the threat of competition by excluding rivals, in particular by:

1. •

   directly or indirectly imposing unfair purchase or selling prices or other unfair trading conditions,

2. •

   limiting production, markets, or technical development to the prejudice of consumers,

3. •

   applying dissimilar conditions to equivalent transactions with other trading parties, thereby placing them at a competitive disadvantage, or

4. •

   making the conclusion of contracts subject to acceptance by the other parties of supplementary obligations which, by their nature, or according to commercial usage, have